Full HD: Yintoni kwaye ithetha ukuthini?

ngo kim Ukuhlaziywa: Juni 27, 2022

HD Pheleleyo, kwaziwa njenge FHD, sisisombululo somboniso we 1920 × 1080 pixels. Iphezulu kune-HD (i-1280 × 720) isisombululo, kwaye inika inani eliphezulu leepikseli kunye neziboniso ezibukhali kakhulu kwaye zineenkcukacha ngakumbi kuneziboniso ezisezantsi. Ikwabonelela ngamava okujongwa okubanzi kwaye iye yaba yi isisombululo esisezantsi semiboniso emininzi kule mihla.

Makhe sijonge iinkcukacha ze HD Pheleleyo Ngoku.

Inkcazo yeHD

HD, okanye Ingcaciso ephezulu, ligama elisetyenziselwa ukubhekisela kwizigqibo ezidlula ingcaciso eqhelekileyo. Ihlala isetyenziswa xa kubhekiswa kwisisombululo sokubonisa, esinikwa ngokwesiqhelo njengobubanzi obuphezulu (umzekelo, 1920×1080).

HD Pheleleyo (ekwabizwa ngokuba yi FHD) ibhekisa ngokuqhelekileyo kwisisombululo se-1920×1080, nangona kukho ezinye izisombululo ze-1080p ezinobubanzi obufanayo kodwa ukuphakama okwahlukileyo (umz., 1080i – 1920×540 okanye 1080p – 1920×540). Ukuze isisombululo somboniso sithathelwe ingqalelo 'i-HD epheleleyo' kufuneka okungenani sibe nayo 1080 imigca ethe tye yesisombululo esithe nkqo.

HD Pheleleyo idla ngokusetyenziswa kwiiseti zikamabonwakude zabathengi kunye neemonitha zekhompyuter, kunye nee-smartphones ezininzi zanamhlanje kunye neetafile. Ngobuchwepheshe bangoku, sesona sisombululo siphezulu esixhaswa ngabakhiqizi abaninzi beesethi zeTV; nangona kunjalo ezinye iimodeli zinokuxhasa izisombululo eziphezulu njenge 4K UHD (3840×2160 okanye 4096×2160).

HD Pheleleyo inikeza ukucaca kunye neenkcukacha ezazingenakwenzeka ngaphambili ngenkcazo eqhelekileyo (i-SD), kunye nemibala yayo eqaqambileyo inika amava okwenene okubukela ekuvumela ukuba ufumane umfanekiso opheleleyo kwinto oyibukeleyo.

Inkcazo yeHD epheleleyo

HD Pheleleyo, kwaziwa njenge FHD, yindlela emfutshane ye Inkcazo epheleleyo. Sisisombululo somboniso we 1920 x 1080 okanye 1080p. Iziboniso zeHD ezigcweleyo zibonelela ngesisombululo esiphezulu kunenkcazo eqhelekileyo (SD) imiboniso kwaye ineepikseli ezininzi kwi-intshi nganye yesikwere ukuze babonise umfanekiso ocace ngakumbi kunye nobukhali ngeenkcukacha ezinkulu. Ifomathi yaziswa ngo-2006 kwaye sele iye yaba sesona sisombululo sidumileyo kwiiTV, iimonitha zekhompyuter, iitafile kunye nee-smartphones.

Full HD inikeza phikseli ezininzi kabini njengoko 1280 x 720 (720p) izigqibo kunye nokuya kuthi ga Izihlandlo ezihlanu ezo zenkcazo eqhelekileyo (SD). Oku kuvumela ukuba imele imifanekiso kwiinkcukacha eziphezulu ngaphandle kokulahlekelwa kokucaca. Ukongeza, inika ababukeli ababanzi abathe tye abaneengile zokujonga ngokubanzi ngenxa yayo I-16: Umlinganiselo we-9 xa kuthelekiswa ne-4:3 yezigqibo ezisezantsi. Imifanekiso ekwiziboniso ezinokulungiswa okuphezulu ibonakala icace ngakumbi kwaye ifana nobomi ngenxa yemigca ebukhali kunye nemibala engqindilili enegalelo kumbono onzulu wokujonga.

Isishwankathelo, Izigqibo ezipheleleyo zeHD zezona ntlobo zisetyenziswa kakhulu zeHDTVs namhlanje ngenxa yokukwazi ukuhambisa umfanekiso ocacileyo kunye nomxholo oneenkcukacha ezixhaswa ngamanqanaba ahlukeneyo ochasano anokufikelela ukuya kuthi ga. 100k ukungcangcazela xa idityaniswe neLCD okanye iphaneli yeLED. Oku kuyenza ilungele ukudlala, ukubukela iimuvi okanye ezinye iindlela zokuzonwabisa ngevidiyo kunye nokwenza imisebenzi eqhelekileyo njengokukhangela iwebhu okanye ukuhlela amaxwebhu kwiPC yakho - yonke imisebenzi efunekayo. iimbonakalo ezibukhali kumanqanaba amakhulu okumanzi ngaphandle kokuncama ukuchaneka.

Izibonelelo zeHD epheleleyo

HD Pheleleyo yitekhnoloji yokubonisa ebandakanya i isisombululo somfanekiso of 1920 x 1080 pixels. Luphuculo olukhulu ngaphezulu kwemigangatho yokubonisa i-HD, ephakathi kwe-720 kunye ne-1080 pixels. Nge-HD egcweleyo, ufumana umfanekiso ocacileyo kunye obukhali ngakumbi, uwenza wonwabe ngakumbi ukubukela iimuvi kunye nemiboniso bhanyabhanya.

Makhe sijonge izibonelelo zeHD epheleleyo ngokweenkcukacha:

Ukuphuculwa koMgangatho Wemifanekiso

HD Pheleleyo, okanye 1080p, yi yedijithali ifomathi yevidiyo enesisombululo se 1920 x 1080 pixels. Esi sisombululo sibonelela ngomgangatho ophuculweyo wemifanekiso kunye nokwanda kwamanqanaba eenkcukacha xa kuthelekiswa nezisombululo ezisezantsi ezifana 720p or 480p.

Iziboniso ze-HD ezigcweleyo ziyakwazi ukumela ngokuchanekileyo i-gamut yombala ocetywayo wemifanekiso yendalo kunye neevidiyo, iyenza ilungele ukusasaza umxholo wemidiya enokwenyani kunye neenkcukacha. I-HD epheleleyo ikwavumela ubungakanani bescreen esikhulu ngaphandle kokuncama umgangatho; izigqibo eziphezulu ezifana 4K vumela ukonyuka kobungakanani ngakumbi ngelixa unikezela ngamava okubukela okuhle.

Ukunyuka koBunzulu boMbala

HD Pheleleyo inikeza ukwanda kwi ubunzulu bombala, okuthetha ukuba uya kuba nofikelelo kwimibala edlamkileyo ngakumbi kunokuba ubuya kwenza ngesisombululo esiqhelekileyo. Obu bunzulu bombala bonyukile buphunyezwa ngenxa yesixa esikhulu seepikseli kwiscreen. Ngeepixels ezininzi ezikhoyo, imibala emininzi inokuboniswa kwaye idala uluhlu olubanzi lweethoni zemibala.

Ubunzulu bombala obuphuculweyo buqinisekisa ukuba nawuphi na umfanekiso owujongayo ubonakala ngathi uphila kwaye unyanisekile ebomini, ukunika owona mboniso uchanekileyo. Ukongeza, inani elikhulu lee-shades ezikhoyo lenza umgangatho womfanekiso otyebileyo ophucula amava akho okujonga.

Ukuphuculwa koMgangatho weAudio

Ukongeza kumfanekiso ocacileyo, iHD epheleleyo inikeza umgangatho wesandi ophuculweyo. Isignali ye-audio ihanjiswa kwifom yedijithali kunye nesignali yevidiyo. Lo mqondiso womgangatho ophezulu uphucula kakhulu ukusebenza komsindo kwaye uvumela iinketho zomsindo ezintsonkothileyo ezifana I-DTS ye-HD Master Audio kwaye I-Dolby TrueHD (okanye ukulingana) ukwenzela ukuveliswa kwesandi esirhangqileyo.

Oku akunikezeli kuphela isandi esineenkcukacha ngakumbi kunye noluhlu olukhulu loluhlu oluguquguqukayo, kodwa luvumela abasebenzisi ukuba benze yiva iithowuni ezivakalayo ebezingavakali ngaphambili kwiinkqubo ezikumgangatho ophantsi.

Iintlobo zeHD epheleleyo

HD Pheleleyo luhlobo lwe Isisombululo esiphezulu sevidiyo yeTV, iimonitha, kunye neekhamera. Inika umfanekiso obukhali ngakumbi kunenkcazo eqhelekileyo kwaye inokubonelela ngomfanekiso ocacileyo kunye nodlamkileyo.

Kukho iintlobo ezininzi zeHD epheleleyo, kuquka 1080p, 1440p, kunye ne-4K, nganye ineengenelo ezahlukeneyo kunye nokungonakali. Makhe sijonge ngakumbi kwezi ntlobo zeFull HD kunye nokuba zithetha ukuthini:

1080p

1080p, ekwabizwa ngokuba HD Pheleleyo or FHD, sisisombululo somboniso esilinganisa Iiphikseli ze-1,920 ngokuthe tye kunye nee-pixels eziyi-1,080 ngokuthe nkqo. U-“p” umele iskena esiqhubekayo kwaye ibhekisa kwindlela umfanekiso kwiscreen ozotywa ngayo kwimigca elandelelanayo ukusuka phezulu ukuya ezantsi. Esi sisombululo se-pixel sibonelela nge inqanaba eliphezulu lokucaca kwemifanekiso yazo zonke izigqibo zeHD kwaye ilungele ukubukela imuvi okanye ukudlala imidlalo yevidiyo enzulu.

Ngelixa i-1080p inokufumaneka kwimiboniso ukusuka kwiscreen esincinci selaptop ukuya kwi-TV enkulu yephaneli ecaba, ikwafumaneka kwiiprojektha ukuze zisetyenziswe eofisini okanye kwigumbi lokufundela.

4K

4K, kwaziwa njenge UHD (Ingcaciso ePhezulu ePhezulu) sisisombululo se-3840 pixels x 2160 pixels (i-4 ngokuphindwe ngenani leepixels njenge-Full HD). Inika umgangatho womfanekiso ongcono kune-1080p kwaye sisisombululo esithandwayo se-4K TVs, iikhomputha, iipilisi kunye neefowuni.

Ngenxa yesisombululo esiphezulu kunye nesakhono sokukhulisa iteknoloji ye-4K, iyakwazi ukuvelisa iinkcukacha ezingaphezulu. Oku kuthetha ukuba iimuvi zakho ozithandayo kunye nemiboniso bhanyabhanya ziya kujongeka zibukhali kwaye zicace ngakumbi kwisixhobo sakho ngetekhnoloji ye-4K kunokuba beziya kwenza nge-Full HD.

Umahluko omkhulu phakathi kwetekhnoloji ye-4K kunye ne-Full HD sisixa seepikseli ezifumaneka kwiscreen. Njengoko kukhankanyiwe ngasentla, iziboniso ze-4K zineepikseli ezininzi ngokuphindwe kane xa kuthelekiswa neziboniso ze-1080p zizenza zibe namandla ngakumbi xa kufikwa ekubambeni loo mifanekiso ineenkcukacha uyifunayo.

Ukongeza, ngokungafaniyo ne-HD egcweleyo, enokuthi ibe yintlaka xa inyuselwe kwizikrini ezinkulu okanye ijongwe kude, ngenxa yobuninzi bayo be-pixel 4K ikuvumela uluhlu olukhulu ngelixa ugcina ukucaca okucacileyo kwekristale. nokuba ikufutshane kangakanani okanye ikude kangakanani kumboniso oyibukeleyo kuwo.

8K

Kwincopho yesisombululo sevidiyo yi-8K (8K UHD). Esi sigqibo sinikezela ngeepikseli ezingama-7680×4320 ezimangalisayo, zibonelela Amaxesha e-16 isisombululo se-1080P Full HD. Iimpawu ze8K zinokuqhutywa kusetyenziswa izantya ezahlukeneyo kunye neentambo. Uxhumo oludumileyo lwe-latency oluphantsi luhamba ngee-HDMI ezimbini ze-2.1 port, ezinokubamba ukuya kuthi ga kwi-4096 x 2160 kwiifreyimu ze-60 ngesekhondi.

Imiboniso ye-8K inikezela ngokumangalisayo, iinkcukacha ezinjengobomi kunye Ukucaca komfanekiso kungaphezulu lee kunayo nayiphi na enye imiqondiso yeHD ekhoyo ngoku. 8K inikeza 64 amaxesha pixels ngaphezulu kunesiqhelo 1080p HDTV -ukuvumela nabani na obukeleyo ukuba akhethe iinkcukacha ezintsonkothileyo ezingabonakaliyo nakweyiphi na enye ifomathi ngenxa yobukhulu bazo obukwiscreen. Ngelixa eli nqanaba lichukumisayo leenkcukacha lingafanelekanga kumxholo ohamba ngokukhawuleza, njengemidlalo kunye nemidlalo yentshukumo, ifanelekile kwabo bafuna owona mboniso ubalaseleyo wokubukela ikhaya ukucaca nokuchaneka okungenakuthelekiswa nanto. Ngokhetho lwayo oluphezulu lwepeyile yombala, ukuzintywilisela kumboniso bhanyabhanya okanye umboniso weTV uziva ngathi yinyani emsulwa kude lee kunoko umndilili oqhelekileyo unokuziva ngaphambili ngezigqibo ezisezantsi ezinje nge720p okanye 1080p Full HD resolution.

Usetyenziso lweHD epheleleyo

HD Pheleleyo sisisombululo esinika inqanaba eliphezulu leenkcukacha xa kuthelekiswa nesisombululo esiqhelekileyo esiqhelekileyo. Ihlala isetyenziselwa ifilimu kunye neshishini likamabonwakude ukudala crisper kwaye imbonakalo eneenkcukacha ngakumbi. Njengoko itekhnoloji ihambela phambili, i-HD egcweleyo ibifumana indlela yayo kwiintlobo ezahlukeneyo zezicelo ezinokuxhamla kwinqanaba eliphakamileyo leenkcukacha.

Eli candelo liza kujonga kwizicelo ezahlukeneyo zeHD egcweleyo kwaye kutheni isiba yi ukhetho oludumileyo kwimveliso yemultimedia:

Television

Nangona sele iyinto eqhelekileyo namhlanje, HD Pheleleyo isabonelela ngeengenelo ezininzi zokubukela umabonwakude. Ezi ziquka uluhlu olubanzi lwemibala kunye nokuchaneka okuchaneke ngakumbi kunye ne-shading, ukuphuculwa kwentshukumo egudileyo kunye nomfanekiso okhangeleka ngcono. Ngokufumaneka kosasazo lweTV ngefomathi egcweleyo yeHD, ababukeli banokukonwabela ukubonwa okumangalisayo ngomboniso ngamnye.

I-HD egcweleyo kumabonakude ikwavumela umfanekiso ocacileyo wolulela ukuya kuthi ga kwi-aspect ratio ye 16:9 ikunika amava abanzi angalinganiyo afana nemiboniso bhanyabhanya. Kubalandeli bezemidlalo baya kubona uqhushumbo okanye ukubambana ngeenkcukacha ezinkulu ezinokwenzeka kuphela nge-Full HD. Singasathethi ke ukuba iiTV ezininzi ngoku zibonelela ngenkqubela phambili yokunyusa umgangatho onokuthi ujike ngokuzenzekelayo umxholo wenkcazo kunye nezigqibo ezisezantsi zibe phantse imifanekiso ye-pixel epheleleyo yeHD.

Ekugqibeleni, ukuba unonxibelelwano olufanelekileyo kwindawo efana nayo HDMI, ungayonwabela iimpawu ezinje ngonxibelelwano usebenzisa iintambo ze-HDMI ezisuka kweminye imithombo efana nemidlalo yokudlala, abadlali beBlu-ray kunye neebhokisi zentambo/sathelayithi ukufikelela kulwazi oluthe kratya kumabonakude wakho ngaphandle kokutshintsha imithombo rhoqo ukunika abasebenzisi ububhetyebhetye ekuyidibaniseni nezinye izixhobo. .

bhanya

HD Pheleleyo Iimuvi ngoku ziyafumaneka kwindawo yemiboniso bhanyabhanya yasekhaya, nangona inkqubo yokubonisa kufuneka ikwazi ukuphatha isisombululo esiphezulu. Iiprojekti zedijithali ezikumgangatho ophezulu ziyakwazi ukuvelisa ngokupheleleyo 1920 x 1080 Umfanekiso wesisombululo kwifomathi yawo yemveli, kodwa iiprojektha zedijithali zedijithali zihlala zixhomekeke kuyo Isisombululo se-2K–2048 x 1080. I-2K isakhangeleka intle, kodwa oku kuncipha kuncinci kwenza ukuba ukujonga iimuvi zeHD ezigcweleyo kuphantse kungenzeki.

Ukuqhubela phambili kwitekhnoloji kwenze ukuba kube nokwenzeka kwiinkonzo zokusasaza ezikumgangatho ophezulu njenge Netflix Ukubonelela ngeevidiyo zeHD ezigcweleyo ngokunjalo. Ngokufikelela okwandisiweyo kumgangatho weHD egcweleyo kuza kumgangatho ophuculweyo wemifanekiso enobunzulu bombala obunzulu kunye nokucaca okupheleleyo kunye nokuqaqamba. Ngoku ababukeli banokufumana amava emifanekiso ye-cinematic ekumgangatho ophezulu nokuba basasaza ukusuka kwiithiyetha zabo zasekhaya okanye iikhompyuter zabo.

Gaming

HD Pheleleyo, kwaziwa njenge 1080p okanye 1920×1080, ngokukhawuleza iba sisisombululo esisemgangathweni kubadlali. Uninzi lweenkqubo zokudlala zamva nje ziyakwazi ukubonisa imidlalo kwesi sigqibo. Ukongeza, inani elandayo lemidlalo yekhonsoli yabadlali abaninzi ngoku ifuna iTV okanye esweni ekwaziyo ukubonisa iHD epheleleyo ukuze udlale kwi-intanethi.

Kwicala lePC, ngakumbi nangakumbi abaphuhlisi bemidlalo baphucula izihloko zabo kwisisombululo se-1080p. Ngaloo ndlela, kuyacetyiswa ukuba uzimisele ngokudlala kwiPC otyala imali kwikhadi levidiyo elikwaziyo ukuqhuba ubuncinci useto oluphakathi kwizihloko ze-AAA ezinesisombululo esipheleleyo seHD. Umzekelo, i NVIDIA GTX 970 okanye ngaphezulu kufuneka inike amandla awoneleyo okuqhuba phantse nawuphi na umdlalo okhoyo ngoku kwimarike ngo-1080p kunye noseto oluphezulu lwegraphical oluvunyiweyo.

Akuqhelekanga ukufumana iimonitha zokudlala kunye neeTV ezibonisa amaxabiso okuhlaziya ukuya kuthi ga ngoku 240 Hz - ezi zibaluleke ngakumbi kubadlali abafuna amaxesha okuvuselela ngokukhawuleza kombane kwimidlalo yokudubula kunye neentlobo ezigxile kwi-twitch. Ezi ziboniso zikwathanda ukuqesha itekhnoloji ye-latency ephantsi ukuze kungabikho zakhelo zilahlwayo ngenxa yokufakwa okuphezulu kwe-lag ukusuka kuqhagamshelo olucothayo phakathi kwesixhobo kunye nephaneli yokubonisa ngokwayo.

isiphelo

HD Pheleleyo, okanye 1080p, ngumgangatho wangoku kwinkcazo ephezulu kwaye inikezela ngomfanekiso ocacileyo kunye neenkcukacha ezininzi zabasebenzisi abaya kufumana ngaphezu kokwanelisayo. Umgangatho womfanekiso weHD epheleleyo ngokuqinisekileyo luphuculo kumgangatho wangaphambili we 720p, kwaye iyabonelela ukusebenza okugqwesileyo kunye nokungacaci kwentshukumo encinci kunye noluhlu olubanzi lwemibala.

Ngaphandle kweengxaki zayo, i-HD epheleleyo iselukhetho olusebenzayo kubasebenzisi abaninzi kwaye inokuba yindlela entle yoku phucula inkqubo yakho yethiyetha yasekhaya.

Isishwankathelo seHD epheleleyo

HD Pheleleyo or Inkcazo epheleleyo ligama elisetyenziselwa ukuchaza umfanekiso onesisombululo esakhiwe 1080 imigca kunye 1920 pixels ngaphaya. Oku kulingana neepikseli ezingama-2,073,600 zizonke ngexesha elinye kwaye ziqhayisa ngokucace ngakumbi kunezinye iinguqulelo. Xa kuthelekiswa nenkcazo eqhelekileyo (SD) enesisombululo semigca engama-480, I-HD epheleleyo inika ababukeli iinkcukacha eziphindwe kane kunye nokucaca enkosi kumfanekiso wesisombululo se-1080-pixel.

I-HD epheleleyo inokubonelela ngobunyani obumangalisayo kumgangatho wemifanekiso, ivumela i amava okubukela leyo iboleka ngokugqibeleleyo ukubukela iimuvi kunye neenkqubo zeTV. Nangona kunjalo, lo mgangatho uphakamileyo ufuna izisombululo ezinkulu zoxinzelelo xa kuthelekiswa nomgangatho we-SD wokusasaza imidiya. Ngenxa yoko, kunokuba yimfuneko ukutyala imali kwizixhobo eziphezulu ezineeprosesa zedatha ezikwaziyo ngakumbi ukuze i-hard drive yakho ikwazi ukugcina isixa esikhulu sedatha enomgangatho ophezulu womfanekiso ngelixa udlala iividiyo ngaphandle kokushiyeka okanye ukuthintitha.

Konke kwinto enye, I-HD epheleleyo yifomathi ebalaseleyo yenkcazo ephezulu ebonelela umfanekiso ogqwesileyo ocacileyo kunye nemizobo ebalaseleyo yokubonisa Ngelixa usabonelela ngogcino olufanelekileyo xa lufakwe ngokufanelekileyo kwaye lucinezelwe ngezisombululo zesoftware yeprimiyamu efana IBluechip iyonke yeVidiyo yezixhobo zePro™.

Izinto eziluncedo zeHD epheleleyo

I-HD epheleleyo (1080p) sisisombululo esiphezulu esibonelela ngomfanekiso ocacileyo oneenkcukacha ezininzi. Isisombululo esigcweleyo seHD sibhekisa kwisibonisi okanye umabonakude onayo Iipixels eziyi-1,920 kwi-axis ethe tye kunye ne-1,080 yeepixels kwi-axis ethe nkqo, kwitotali yeepixels ezingama-2,073,600.. Oku kubangela umgangatho ophezulu wemifanekiso xa kuthelekiswa nezinye izisombululo kwaye unikezela ngamava okubukela angenakulinganiswa.

Izinto eziluncedo zeHD epheleleyo

• Imbonakalo eqaqambileyo -Imifanekiso eboniswe kwisisombululo esipheleleyo seHD inokucaca kunye nokwenyani njengoko isondela kakhulu ekunikezeni imifanekiso efana nobomi kwaye zonke iinkcukacha zokugqibela zibonakala. Umahluko phakathi kwe-720p kunye ne-1080p ucacile-i-1080p ibonisa phantse kabini iipikseli ezininzi xa uthelekisa ecaleni-nto leyo eyenza ukuba ifanele ukubukela iimuvi okanye ukudlala imidlalo yevidiyo.
• Iinkcukacha ezingakumbi, ingxolo encinci -Ngamaphikseli amaninzi esikrinini ngalo lonke ixesha kuya kubakho amathuba amancinci okuphazamiseka kwengxolo ukudanyaza kunye nokufiphala kwentshukumo okwenzekayo ngenxa yoxinano olungaphantsi ngokubalwa kwepixel nganye kwizisombululo ezisezantsi ezifana ne-720p.
• Iinketho zonxibelelwano ezingcono -Iziqhagamshelo ezininzi ngokubanzi zisetyenziselwa iziboniso ze-1080p ezinje I-HDMI (i-High Definition Multimedia Interface), i-DVI (i-Digital Visual Interface) ukwenza uqhagamshelo kwizixhobo ezahlukeneyo ukusuka kwiinkqubo zethiyetha yasekhaya ukuya kwiiconsoles zomdlalo kunye nehardware yenyani yenyani eyonwabela owona mgangatho weaudio/wevidiyo ukhoyo.

Molo, ndinguKim, umama kunye nomthandi we-stop-motion onemvelaphi kwindalo yemidiya kunye nophuhliso lwewebhu. Ndinothando olukhulu lokuzoba kunye noopopayi, kwaye ngoku ndintywila kuqala kwihlabathi le-stop-motion. Ngebhlog yam, ndabelana nawe ngokufunda kwam.